Introduction xi
Part 1. The Skull of Fossil and Present-day Quadruped Vertebrates: Craniofacial Structure and Postural Balance 1
Chapter 1. Proboscideans: The Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) 3
1.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 3
1.2. Mammoth discoveries in Île-de-France 5
1.3. A young mammoth in Maisons-Alfort 5
1.4. A woolly mammoth skull in the reserves 6
1.5. A mammoth skull with removed tusks 7
1.6. A particular tooth eruption 8
Chapter 2. Equidae 11
2.1. The horse (Equus caballus) 11
2.1.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 11
2.1.2. A fossil horse in Africa: paleogeographic and biostratigraphic distributions 15
2.1.3. The postural balance of Equidae 17
2.1.4. Joint pathologies in service horses 18
2.1.5. Introduction to animal bone pathologies and zoonoses 20
2.1.6. The horse’s status over the centuries 20
2.2. The donkey (Equus asinus) 21
2.2.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 22
2.2.2. The status of the donkey over the centuries 23
Chapter 3. Bovidae 25
3.1. Aurochs (Bos primigenius) 25
3.1.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 25
3.1.2. Cattle (Bos taurus) 27
3.1.3. The status of cattle over the centuries 28
3.2. The bison (Bison priscus): chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 28
3.3. The buffalo (Syncerus antiquus) 29
3.3.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the current Syncerus and Bubalus buffaloes 29
3.3.2. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of fossil species 30
3.3.3. Bos/Syncerus dental distinction criteria 35
3.3.4. Postural balance and paleoecology of Bovidae 38
3.3.5. Polymorphism and dimorphism in Bovidae 39
3.3.6. Osteoarticular abnormalities and bone pathologies in Bovidae 41
3.4. The common eland (Taurotragus oryx) 43
3.4.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 43
3.4.2. Posture and locomotor adaptation 46
3.5. The hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) 48
3.5.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 48
3.5.2. Postural balance 49
3.6. Gazelles (Gazella) 50
3.6.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 50
3.6.2. Postural balance 51
Chapter 4. Cervidae 53
4.1. The red deer (Cervus elaphus) 53
4.1.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 53
4.1.2. The status of deer developing over the centuries 58
4.2. The Algerian thick-cheeked deer (Megaceroides algericus) 59
4.2.1. Several species from Europe, the Mediterranean islands and one species from the Maghreb 60
4.2.2. Size of Megaceroides algericus 63
Chapter 5. Suidae 65
5.1. The wild boar (Sus scrofa) 65
5.1.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 65
5.1.2. The status of the boar over the centuries 67
5.1.3. Postural balance of the boar 67
5.2. The warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus or africanus) 70
5.2.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 71
5.2.2. A particular tooth eruption 74
5.2.3. Postural balance of the warthog 76
5.2.4. Pathologies in warthogs 77
5.2.5. A catastrophic mortality curve 78
Chapter 6. Carnivores 81
6.1. The lion (Panthera leo) 81
6.1.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 81
6.1.2. Occlusal posture and the lion’s balance on the ground 83
6.2. The panther or leopard (Panthera pardus) 84
6.2.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 85
6.2.2. Occlusal posture and postural balance of the panther on the ground 85
6.3. The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta): chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 87
6.4. The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) 89
6.4.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of species 89
6.4.2. Occlusal posture and postural balance of hyenas on the ground 90
6.5. The cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) and the brown bear (Ursus arctos): chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 93
6.6. The wolf (Canis lupus): chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 95
Chapter 7. Lagomorphs: The Hare (Lepus capensis) 99
7.1. Chronological, geographical and morphological indications of the species 99
7.2. The status of the hare over the centuries 101
Part 2. The Skull of Fossil Bipedal Vertebrates: Craniofacial Structure and Postural Balance 103
Chapter 8. Primates 105
8.1. Occlusal posture, quadrupedic and verticalization of the Hominoid body 106
8.2. Work in dentofacial orthopedics and embryogenesis 108
Chapter 9. Hominoids 111
9.1. Kenyapithecus 112
9.2. Nacholapithecus 113
9.3. Otavipithecus namibiensis 113
Chapter 10. From Hominoids to Hominids 115
10.1. Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba 115
10.2. Praeanthropus tugenensis (= Orrorin tugenensis) 116
10.3. Sahelanthropus tchadensis 116
10.4. Ardipithecus ramidus 117
10.5. Praeanthropus africanus (= Australopithecus anamensis) 118
Chapter 11. Australopithecus 119
11.1. Australopithecus afarensis 120
11.2. Australopithecus africanus 120
11.3. Australopithecus bahrelghazali 120
11.4. Australopithecus garhi 121
11.5. Paranthropus robustus 121
11.6. Australopithecus aethiopicus 121
11.7. Australopithecus boisei 122
Chapter 12. The Genus Homo 123
12.1. Homo habilis 126
12.2. Homo rudolfensis 126
12.3. Homo ergaster and Homo erectus 127
12.4. Homo georgicus 128
12.5. Homo neanderthalensis 129
12.5.1. Plesiomorphic and autapomorphic morphological features 129
12.5.2. Non-Sapiens craniofacial dynamics and posture 130
12.5.3. A permanent labidodental joint 130
12.5.4. The asymmetry of fossil pieces 133
12.6. Homo sapiens 135
Chapter 13. Migration and Paleogeographic Distribution of the Homininae 137
13.1. Australopithecus and Homo habilis: regional African migrations 137
13.2. Homo ergaster and Homo erectus: the first great African-Eurasian journey 139
13.3. Homo neanderthalensis: a Eurasian traveler 141
13.4. Homo sapiens: the second great conquest voyage on all continents 141
Part 3. The Skull of Homo sapiens in All its Diversity 145
Chapter 14. The Craniofacial Puzzle in Motion 147
14.1. Normality and its boundaries with the abnormal and the pathological 147
14.2. The importance of interpreting or reinterpreting (Le Double 1903, 1906) 148
14.3. Craniofacial structural mechanics and dynamics 149
14.3.1. Biodynamics of vault bones 150
14.3.2. Biodynamics of the temporal bone 151
14.3.3. Biodynamics of the occipital bone 151
14.3.4. Biodynamics of the sphenoidal bone 152
14.3.5. Biodynamics of the maxillary bone 152
14.3.6. Biodynamics of the mandibular bone 154
Chapter 15. The Basics of Structural Analysis 157
15.1. Analysis tools using imaging 157
15.2. Maxillo-mandibular dysmorphoses 159
x The Skull of Quadruped and Bipedal Vertebrates
15.2.1. Angle’s classification 160
15.3. History of structural mechanics: from geometry to imagery 161
15.3.1. The initiators 161
15.3.2. FDO orthopedists and orthodontists 163
15.3.3. Osteopaths 165
15.3.4. Recent work in human paleontology and paleoanthropology 166
Chapter 16. Identification of Malformation 169
16.1. Craniostenosis, a history of sutures 169
16.2. Craniofacial asymmetries 172
16.2.1. Examples of craniofacial asymmetries 174
16.2.2. The importance of the spine and its effects in basic cranial equilibrium or disequilibrium 180
16.3. Psalidodontia or labidodontia? 181
16.3.1. The behavior of the dental articulation of juvenile Pleistocene and Holocene populations in the Maghreb and the Sahara 184
16.3.2. Dental articulation and extraction of the incisors 187
16.4. Para-masticatory functions of Homo sapiens in Algeria 190
16.5. Occlusal equilibrium and adaptation of regional morphotypes 193
16.5.1. In the Paris Basin 193
16.5.2. In the Maghreb countries 198
16.5.3. Occlusal balance and the regional morphotype in the Maghreb and Sub-Saharan Africa 199
Chapter 17. Ignored Pathologies 205
17.1. Extremely rare craniofacial pathologies 205
17.1.1. Crouzon syndrome 205
17.1.2. Marfan syndrome 205
17.1.3. Cranial thickening and Albers-Schönberg’s disease 206
17.1.4. Torticollis 206
17.1.5. Parietal thinning 207
17.1.6. Scurvy 208
17.2. The oldest therapeutic practice: trepanning 209
Conclusion 211
References 213
Index 235
